Impact of Invasive Alien Species- Acacia nilotica on the Remnant Dry Deciduous Forest of Palu Valley, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia
Annual Research & Review in Biology,
Page 97-111
DOI:
10.9734/arrb/2021/v36i730403
Abstract
Aims: The study was carried out to assess the species composition, vegetation structure, regeneration and possible direction of vegetation development due to Acacia nilotica invasion.
Study Design: The study applied the vegetation analysis and remote sensing technique in the deciduous forest of the Palu Valley in Central Sulawesi.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in Biromuli District, Sigi Regency, Central Sulawesi Province of Indonesia in February 2019.
Methodology: Species composition, vegetation structure and regeneration were studied using the split plot method, while the specific population and distribution of A. nilotica were studied using drone photos in an area of 10.24 ha.
Results: Individuals >2cm in diameter are 24 species, 22 genera and 14 families. The main species are Tabernaemontana pandacaqui, A. nilotica and Jatropha gossypiifolia. The ground vegetation (diameter<2cm) contained 21 species, 21 genera and 17 families, dominated by Digitaria ciliaris and A. nilotica. The species diversity index is 2.3880 (moderate), while the species evenness index is 0.75 (unstable). Density of 1.069 individual’s per ha and total basal area 2.48 m2 per ha. The dominance of individuals with a diameter of 2.0-4.9 cm (62.9%), followed by diameter of 5.0-9.9 cm (32.4%), and diameter of 10 cm up (4.67%). The canopy layer consists of only one main layer at a height of 4-7m. Canopy analysis using drone photos showed that 27% of the total forest canopy area and 32.9% of the total individuals were controlled by A. nilotica.
Conclusion: The dry forest in Sigi is the remnant deciduous forest located specifically in the Palu Valley which is still in the process of development. The invasion of A. nilotica needs to be controlled in a sustainable way so that the rest of the forest does not turn into a stretch of A. nilotica.
Keywords:
- Acacia nilotica
- Central Sulawesi
- Dry deciduous forest
- Invasive Alien Species
- Sigi
How to Cite
Siregar, M., Sutomo, ., Purnomo, D. W., & Iryadi, R. (2021). Impact of Invasive Alien Species- Acacia nilotica on the Remnant Dry Deciduous Forest of Palu Valley, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Annual Research & Review in Biology, 36(7), 97-111. https://doi.org/10.9734/arrb/2021/v36i730403
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Whitmore TC. Tropical rain forests of the far east. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press; 1986.
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Meijer-Drees E. Distribution, ecology and silvicultural possibilities of the trees and shrubs from the savanna forest region in Eastern Sumbawa and Timor (Lesser Sunda Islands). Communication of the Forest Research Institute. 1951;33:1-146.
Sutomo S, van Etten E, Wahab L. Proof of Acacia nilotica stand expansion in Bekol Savanna, Baluran National Park, East Java, Indonesia through remote sensing and field observations. Biodiversitas. 2016;17(1):96-101
Siregar M, Yuswandi AY. Alternatif lokasi pengembangan kebun raya dan eksplorasi tumbuhan hutan monsun meranggas berbasis peta distribusi tipe hutan di Nusa Tenggara. Buletin Kebun Raya. 2018;21(2):67–82. Indonesia.
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Accessed 21 July 2021.
Available:https://factsofindonesia.com/largest-islands-in-indonesia.
Whitten T, Henderson GS, Mustafa M. Ecology of Sulawesi. The Ecology of Indonesia series. Volume IV. Gadjah Mada University Press. Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd; 1987.
Siregar M, Helmanto H, Rakhmawati SU. Vegetation analysis of tree communities at some forest patches in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(3):643-655.
Purnomo DW, Siregar M, Lubis RF, Hidayat A, Suhendar, Widoretno A, et al. Laporan akhir master plan Kebun Raya Sigi. Bogor: Pusat Penelitian Konservasi Tumbuhan dan Kebun Raya LIPI, Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Sigi; 2019. Indonesia.
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Tuhid NH, Abdullah NE, Khairi NM, Saaid MF, Shahrizam MSB, Hashim H. A statistical approach for orchid disease identification using RGB color. 2012 IEEE Control and System Graduate Research Colloquium. 16-17 Juli 2012:382-385.
DOI: 10.1109/ICSGRC.2012.6287196.
Zhang X, Zhang F, Qi Y, Deng L, Wang X, Yang S. New research methods for vegetation information extraction based on visible light remote sensing images from an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 2019;78:215-226.
Aslan A, Rahman AF, Warren MW, Robeson SM. Mapping spatial distribution and biomass of coastal wetland vegetation in Indonesian Papua by combining active and passive remotely sensed data. Remote Sensing of Environment. 2016;183:65–81.
Lamont BB, Downes S, Fox JED. Importance–value curves and diversity indices applied to a species-rich heathland in Western Australia. Nature. 1977;265:438–441.
Curtis JT, McIntosh RP. The interrelations of certain analytic and synthetic of phytosociological characters. Ecology. 1950;31:434-455.
Mueller-Dombois D, Ellenberg H. Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1974.
Mori SA, Boom BM, de Carvalho AM, dos Santos TS. Ecological importance of Myrtaceae in an Eastern Brazilian West Forest. Biotropica. 1983;15(1):68–70.
Gaines WL, Harrod JR, Lehmkuhl JF. Monitoring biodiversity: quantification and interpretation. General technical report PNW-GTR-443, USDA Forest Service, Pacific North-West Research Station; 1999.
Magurran AE. Ecological diversity and its measurement. New Jersey (US): Princeton University Press; 1988.
Krebs CJ. Ecology. The experimental analysis of distribution and abundance. New York: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers; 1994.
Pielou EC. The Measurement of diversity in different types of biological collections. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 1966;13: 131-144.
Hammer O. PAST-Paleontological statistics. version 3.04. Norway: Natural History Museum, University of Oslo; 2014.
Scheiner, SM. Six types of species-area curves. Global Ecology & Biogeography. 2003;12:441-447.
Vieira DL, Scariot A. Principles of natural regeneration of tropical dry forests for restoration. Restoration Ecology. 2006; 14:11-20.
Dale VH. The role of disturbance in seasonally dry tropical forest landscapes. In: McShea WJ, Davies SJ, N. Bhumpakphan N, editors. The ecology and conservation of seasonally dry forests in Asia. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. 2011;75-96.
Chua LSL, Horsten SFAJ. Tabernaemontana L. In: van Valkenburg JLCH, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant resources of south-east Asia No. 12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 2001.
Davies SJ, Becker P. Floristic composition and stand structure of mixed dipterocarp and heath forests in Brunei Darussalam. Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 1996;8(4):542-569.
Sist P, Saridan A. Stand structure and floristic composition of a primary lowland dipterocarp forest in East Kalimantan. Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 1999;11(4):704-722.
Djarwaningsih T. Keanekaragaman jenis Euphorbiaceae (jarak-jarakan) endemik di Sumatra. Jurnal Biodjati. 2017;2(2):89-94. Indonesia.
van der Pijl L. Principles of dispersal in higher plants. Berlin: Spingerverlag; 1982.
Hartshorn GS. Neotropical forest dynamics. Tropical succession. Biotropica, Suppl. 1980;12(2):20-30.
Lorimer CG. Age structure and disturbance history of a southern appalachian virgin forest. Ecology. 1980;61:1169-1184.
Proctor J, Anderson JM, Chai P, Vallack HW. Ecological studies in four contrasting lowland rain forests in Gunung Mulu National Park, Serawak. I. Forest environment, structure and floristics. Journal of Ecology. 1983;71:237-260.
Mori SA, Rabelo BV, Tsou CH, Daly D. Composition and structure of an Eastern Amazonian forest at Camaipi, Amapa, Brazil. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi. Serie Botanica. 1989;5:3-18.
Leak WA. Long-term structural change in uneven-aged northern hardwoods. Forestry Science. 1996;42:160-165.
Kartawinata K, Samsoedin I, Heriyanto M, Afriastini JJ. A tree species inventory in a one-hectare plot at the Batang Gadis National Park, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Reinwardtia. 2004;12(2):145-157.
Simbolon H. Dynamics of mixed Dipterocarps forests in Wanariset Semboja, East Kalimantan after three times of forest fires within the periods of 1980-2003. Biodiversitas. 2005;6(2):133-137.
Aigbe HI, Omokhua GE. Modeling diameter distribution of the tropical rainforest in Oban Forest Reserve. Journal of Environment and Ecology. 2014;5(2): 130-143.
Ratnam J, Chengappa SK, Machado SJ, Nataraj N, Osuri AM, Sankaran M. Functional traits of trees from dry deciduous “forests” of southern India suggest seasonal drought and fire are important drivers. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 2019;7(8):1-6.
Banda K, Delgado-Salinas A, Dexter KG, Linares-Palomino R, Oliveira-Filho A, Prado D, et al. Plant diversity patterns in neotropical dry forests and their conservation implications. Science. 2016;353(6306):1383-1387.
Sutomo S, Darma IDP, Iryadi R. The dissimilarity in plant species composition of savanna ecosystem along the elevation gradient on Flores Island, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity. 2020;21(2):492-496.
Anonymous. Acacia nilotica (gum arabic tree). Invasive species compendium. CABI; 2019.
Accessed 4 June 2021.
Available:https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/2342.
Fagg CW. Acacia nilotica - pioneer for dry lands. NFT Highlights No. 92-04; 1992.
Brenan JPM. Manual on taxonomy of Acacia species: Present taxonomy of four species of Acacia (A. albida, A.senegal, A. nilotica, A. tortilis). Rome: United Nations FAO; 1983.
Skowno ALM, Bond WJ, Balfour D. Secondary succession in Acacia nilotica (L.) savanna in the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, South Africa. Plant Ecology. 1999;145:1-9.
Reynolds JA, Carter JO. Woody weeds in central western Queensland. Perth: Proceedings 6th Biennial Conference, Australian Rangelands Society, Carnarvon; 1990.
Burrows WH, Carter JO, Scanlan JC, Anderson ER. Management of savannas for livestock production in North-East Australia: Contrast across the tree-grass continuum. In: Werner PA, editor. Savanna Ecology and Management. London: Blackwell; 1991.
Carter JO. Acacia nilotica: a tree legume out of control. Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture. 1994:338-351.
Mackey AP. Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica) in Queensland. Pest status review series - land protection branch. Queensland: Department of Natural Resources and Mines; 1996.
Radford IJ, Nicholas MD, Brown JR. Impact of prescribed burning on Acacia nilotica seed banks and seedlings in the Astrebla grasslands of Northern Australia. Journal of Arid Environments. 2001;49:795-807.
Weber E. Invasive plant species of the world: A reference guide to environmental weeds. Wallingford, UK: CAB International; 2003.
Singh SP. Growth studies of Acacia nilotica. Indian Forester. 1982;108(4):283-288.
Troup RS, Joshi HB. The silviculture of Indian trees. Vol IV. Leguminosae. Delhi, India: Controller of Publications; 1983.
Djufri. Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. and problematical in Baluran National Park, East Java. Biodiversitas. 2004;5:96-104.
Setiabudi, Tjitrosoedirdjo S, Tjitrosoedirdjo SS, Mawardi I, Bachri S. Invansion of Acacia nilotica into savannas inside Baluran National Parks, East Java, Indonesia. Technical Papers Invasive Weeds, Ecology and Management. Bandung: Proc. 24th Asian-Pasific Weed Science Society Conference. 2013;23-25.
Sutomo S, van Etten E, Iryadi R. Use of landsat imagery to map spread of the invasive alien species Acacia nilotica in Baluran National Park, Indonesia. BIOTROPIA-The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Biology. 2020;27(1):88-96.
Sharma KD, Singh S, Singh N, Bohra DN. Satellite remote sensing for detecting the temporal changes in the grazing lands. Journal of The Indian Society of Remote Sensing. 1989;17(4):55-59.
Lawes RA, Wallace JF. Monitoring an invasive perennial at the landscape scale with remote sensing. Ecological Management and Restoration. 2008;9(1): 53-59.
Bargali K, Bargali SS. Acacia nilotica: a multipurpose leguminous plant. Nature and Science. 2009;7(4):11-19.
Dreyfus BL, Dommergues YR. Nodulation of Acacia species by fast- and slow-growing tropical strains of Rhizobium. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1981;41:97-99.
Sutomo S, van Etten E. Effect of fire and digestion by herbivores on seeds of the exotic invasive species Acacia nilotica from savanna at Baluran National Parks, Indonesia. Australasian Plant Conservation. 2016;25:20-21.
El-Khawas SA, Shehata MM. The allelopathic potentialities of Acacia nilotica and Eucalyptus rostrata on monocot (Zea mays L.) and dicot (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) plants. Biotechnology. 2005;4(1):23-34.
Pandey CB, Pandya KS, Pandey D, Sharma RB. Growth and productivity of rice (Oryza sativa) as affected by Acacia nilotica in a traditional agroforestry system. Tropical Ecology. 1999;40(1):109-117.
Bargali SS, Singh SP, Pandya KS. Effect of Acacia nilotica on gram crop in a traditional agroforestry system of Chhattisgarh plains. International Journal Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 2004;30(4):363-368.
Duhan JS, Lakshinarayana K. Allelopathic effect of Acacia nilotica on cereal and legume crops grown in fields. Allelopathy Journal. 1995;2(1):93-98.
Wang WX, Vinocur B, Shoseyov O, Altman A. Role of plant heat shock proteins and molecular chaperones in the abiotic stress response. Trends Plant Science. 2004; 9(5): z244-252.
Khurana E, Singh JS. Ecology of seed and seedling growth for conservation and restoration of tropical dry forest: a review. Environmental conservation. 2001; 28(1):39-52.
Khurana E, Singh JS. Germination and seedling growth of five tree species from tropical dry forest in relation to water stress: impact of seed size. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 2004;20(4):385-396.
Barbour GM, Busk JK, Pitts WD. Terrestrial plant ecology. New York: The Benyamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc; 1987.
Available:https://biologydictionary.net/deciduous-forest/
Kartawinata K. Diversitas ekosistem alami Indonesia. Ungkapan singkat dengan sajian foto dan gambar. Jakarta: LIPI Press – Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia. Indonesia; 2013.
Whitmore TC. Tropical rain forests of the far east. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press; 1986.
Whitten T, Soeriaatmadja RE, Afiff SA. Ecology of Java and Bali. The Ecology of Indonesia Series. Volume II. Oxford University Press. Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd; 1997.
Monk KA, de Fretes Y, Lilley GR. Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. The Ecology of Indonesia series. Volume V. Dalhousie University. Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd; 1997.
Meijer-Drees E. Distribution, ecology and silvicultural possibilities of the trees and shrubs from the savanna forest region in Eastern Sumbawa and Timor (Lesser Sunda Islands). Communication of the Forest Research Institute. 1951;33:1-146.
Sutomo S, van Etten E, Wahab L. Proof of Acacia nilotica stand expansion in Bekol Savanna, Baluran National Park, East Java, Indonesia through remote sensing and field observations. Biodiversitas. 2016;17(1):96-101
Siregar M, Yuswandi AY. Alternatif lokasi pengembangan kebun raya dan eksplorasi tumbuhan hutan monsun meranggas berbasis peta distribusi tipe hutan di Nusa Tenggara. Buletin Kebun Raya. 2018;21(2):67–82. Indonesia.
Robichaux RH, Yetman D, editors. The tropical deciduous forest of Alamos: Biodiversity of a threatened ecosystem in Mexico. University of Arizona Press; 2000.
Anonymous. Top 5 largest island in Indonesia. Factsofindonesia; 2021.
Accessed 21 July 2021.
Available:https://factsofindonesia.com/largest-islands-in-indonesia.
Whitten T, Henderson GS, Mustafa M. Ecology of Sulawesi. The Ecology of Indonesia series. Volume IV. Gadjah Mada University Press. Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd; 1987.
Siregar M, Helmanto H, Rakhmawati SU. Vegetation analysis of tree communities at some forest patches in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2019;20(3):643-655.
Purnomo DW, Siregar M, Lubis RF, Hidayat A, Suhendar, Widoretno A, et al. Laporan akhir master plan Kebun Raya Sigi. Bogor: Pusat Penelitian Konservasi Tumbuhan dan Kebun Raya LIPI, Dinas Lingkungan Hidup Kabupaten Sigi; 2019. Indonesia.
Supartoyo, Cipta A, Solikhin A, Hidayati S, Effendi R. Tingkat guncangan dan skala Intensitas Gempa bumi. In: Andiani, Oktariadi O, Kurnia A, editors. Di balik pesona Palu, bencana melanda, geologi menata. Bandung: Badan Geologi, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral; 2018. Indonesia.
Tuhid NH, Abdullah NE, Khairi NM, Saaid MF, Shahrizam MSB, Hashim H. A statistical approach for orchid disease identification using RGB color. 2012 IEEE Control and System Graduate Research Colloquium. 16-17 Juli 2012:382-385.
DOI: 10.1109/ICSGRC.2012.6287196.
Zhang X, Zhang F, Qi Y, Deng L, Wang X, Yang S. New research methods for vegetation information extraction based on visible light remote sensing images from an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 2019;78:215-226.
Aslan A, Rahman AF, Warren MW, Robeson SM. Mapping spatial distribution and biomass of coastal wetland vegetation in Indonesian Papua by combining active and passive remotely sensed data. Remote Sensing of Environment. 2016;183:65–81.
Lamont BB, Downes S, Fox JED. Importance–value curves and diversity indices applied to a species-rich heathland in Western Australia. Nature. 1977;265:438–441.
Curtis JT, McIntosh RP. The interrelations of certain analytic and synthetic of phytosociological characters. Ecology. 1950;31:434-455.
Mueller-Dombois D, Ellenberg H. Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1974.
Mori SA, Boom BM, de Carvalho AM, dos Santos TS. Ecological importance of Myrtaceae in an Eastern Brazilian West Forest. Biotropica. 1983;15(1):68–70.
Gaines WL, Harrod JR, Lehmkuhl JF. Monitoring biodiversity: quantification and interpretation. General technical report PNW-GTR-443, USDA Forest Service, Pacific North-West Research Station; 1999.
Magurran AE. Ecological diversity and its measurement. New Jersey (US): Princeton University Press; 1988.
Krebs CJ. Ecology. The experimental analysis of distribution and abundance. New York: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers; 1994.
Pielou EC. The Measurement of diversity in different types of biological collections. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 1966;13: 131-144.
Hammer O. PAST-Paleontological statistics. version 3.04. Norway: Natural History Museum, University of Oslo; 2014.
Scheiner, SM. Six types of species-area curves. Global Ecology & Biogeography. 2003;12:441-447.
Vieira DL, Scariot A. Principles of natural regeneration of tropical dry forests for restoration. Restoration Ecology. 2006; 14:11-20.
Dale VH. The role of disturbance in seasonally dry tropical forest landscapes. In: McShea WJ, Davies SJ, N. Bhumpakphan N, editors. The ecology and conservation of seasonally dry forests in Asia. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. 2011;75-96.
Chua LSL, Horsten SFAJ. Tabernaemontana L. In: van Valkenburg JLCH, Bunyapraphatsara N, editors. Plant resources of south-east Asia No. 12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants 2. Bogor: PROSEA Foundation; 2001.
Davies SJ, Becker P. Floristic composition and stand structure of mixed dipterocarp and heath forests in Brunei Darussalam. Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 1996;8(4):542-569.
Sist P, Saridan A. Stand structure and floristic composition of a primary lowland dipterocarp forest in East Kalimantan. Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 1999;11(4):704-722.
Djarwaningsih T. Keanekaragaman jenis Euphorbiaceae (jarak-jarakan) endemik di Sumatra. Jurnal Biodjati. 2017;2(2):89-94. Indonesia.
van der Pijl L. Principles of dispersal in higher plants. Berlin: Spingerverlag; 1982.
Hartshorn GS. Neotropical forest dynamics. Tropical succession. Biotropica, Suppl. 1980;12(2):20-30.
Lorimer CG. Age structure and disturbance history of a southern appalachian virgin forest. Ecology. 1980;61:1169-1184.
Proctor J, Anderson JM, Chai P, Vallack HW. Ecological studies in four contrasting lowland rain forests in Gunung Mulu National Park, Serawak. I. Forest environment, structure and floristics. Journal of Ecology. 1983;71:237-260.
Mori SA, Rabelo BV, Tsou CH, Daly D. Composition and structure of an Eastern Amazonian forest at Camaipi, Amapa, Brazil. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi. Serie Botanica. 1989;5:3-18.
Leak WA. Long-term structural change in uneven-aged northern hardwoods. Forestry Science. 1996;42:160-165.
Kartawinata K, Samsoedin I, Heriyanto M, Afriastini JJ. A tree species inventory in a one-hectare plot at the Batang Gadis National Park, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Reinwardtia. 2004;12(2):145-157.
Simbolon H. Dynamics of mixed Dipterocarps forests in Wanariset Semboja, East Kalimantan after three times of forest fires within the periods of 1980-2003. Biodiversitas. 2005;6(2):133-137.
Aigbe HI, Omokhua GE. Modeling diameter distribution of the tropical rainforest in Oban Forest Reserve. Journal of Environment and Ecology. 2014;5(2): 130-143.
Ratnam J, Chengappa SK, Machado SJ, Nataraj N, Osuri AM, Sankaran M. Functional traits of trees from dry deciduous “forests” of southern India suggest seasonal drought and fire are important drivers. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 2019;7(8):1-6.
Banda K, Delgado-Salinas A, Dexter KG, Linares-Palomino R, Oliveira-Filho A, Prado D, et al. Plant diversity patterns in neotropical dry forests and their conservation implications. Science. 2016;353(6306):1383-1387.
Sutomo S, Darma IDP, Iryadi R. The dissimilarity in plant species composition of savanna ecosystem along the elevation gradient on Flores Island, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity. 2020;21(2):492-496.
Anonymous. Acacia nilotica (gum arabic tree). Invasive species compendium. CABI; 2019.
Accessed 4 June 2021.
Available:https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/2342.
Fagg CW. Acacia nilotica - pioneer for dry lands. NFT Highlights No. 92-04; 1992.
Brenan JPM. Manual on taxonomy of Acacia species: Present taxonomy of four species of Acacia (A. albida, A.senegal, A. nilotica, A. tortilis). Rome: United Nations FAO; 1983.
Skowno ALM, Bond WJ, Balfour D. Secondary succession in Acacia nilotica (L.) savanna in the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, South Africa. Plant Ecology. 1999;145:1-9.
Reynolds JA, Carter JO. Woody weeds in central western Queensland. Perth: Proceedings 6th Biennial Conference, Australian Rangelands Society, Carnarvon; 1990.
Burrows WH, Carter JO, Scanlan JC, Anderson ER. Management of savannas for livestock production in North-East Australia: Contrast across the tree-grass continuum. In: Werner PA, editor. Savanna Ecology and Management. London: Blackwell; 1991.
Carter JO. Acacia nilotica: a tree legume out of control. Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture. 1994:338-351.
Mackey AP. Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica) in Queensland. Pest status review series - land protection branch. Queensland: Department of Natural Resources and Mines; 1996.
Radford IJ, Nicholas MD, Brown JR. Impact of prescribed burning on Acacia nilotica seed banks and seedlings in the Astrebla grasslands of Northern Australia. Journal of Arid Environments. 2001;49:795-807.
Weber E. Invasive plant species of the world: A reference guide to environmental weeds. Wallingford, UK: CAB International; 2003.
Singh SP. Growth studies of Acacia nilotica. Indian Forester. 1982;108(4):283-288.
Troup RS, Joshi HB. The silviculture of Indian trees. Vol IV. Leguminosae. Delhi, India: Controller of Publications; 1983.
Djufri. Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. and problematical in Baluran National Park, East Java. Biodiversitas. 2004;5:96-104.
Setiabudi, Tjitrosoedirdjo S, Tjitrosoedirdjo SS, Mawardi I, Bachri S. Invansion of Acacia nilotica into savannas inside Baluran National Parks, East Java, Indonesia. Technical Papers Invasive Weeds, Ecology and Management. Bandung: Proc. 24th Asian-Pasific Weed Science Society Conference. 2013;23-25.
Sutomo S, van Etten E, Iryadi R. Use of landsat imagery to map spread of the invasive alien species Acacia nilotica in Baluran National Park, Indonesia. BIOTROPIA-The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Biology. 2020;27(1):88-96.
Sharma KD, Singh S, Singh N, Bohra DN. Satellite remote sensing for detecting the temporal changes in the grazing lands. Journal of The Indian Society of Remote Sensing. 1989;17(4):55-59.
Lawes RA, Wallace JF. Monitoring an invasive perennial at the landscape scale with remote sensing. Ecological Management and Restoration. 2008;9(1): 53-59.
Bargali K, Bargali SS. Acacia nilotica: a multipurpose leguminous plant. Nature and Science. 2009;7(4):11-19.
Dreyfus BL, Dommergues YR. Nodulation of Acacia species by fast- and slow-growing tropical strains of Rhizobium. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1981;41:97-99.
Sutomo S, van Etten E. Effect of fire and digestion by herbivores on seeds of the exotic invasive species Acacia nilotica from savanna at Baluran National Parks, Indonesia. Australasian Plant Conservation. 2016;25:20-21.
El-Khawas SA, Shehata MM. The allelopathic potentialities of Acacia nilotica and Eucalyptus rostrata on monocot (Zea mays L.) and dicot (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) plants. Biotechnology. 2005;4(1):23-34.
Pandey CB, Pandya KS, Pandey D, Sharma RB. Growth and productivity of rice (Oryza sativa) as affected by Acacia nilotica in a traditional agroforestry system. Tropical Ecology. 1999;40(1):109-117.
Bargali SS, Singh SP, Pandya KS. Effect of Acacia nilotica on gram crop in a traditional agroforestry system of Chhattisgarh plains. International Journal Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 2004;30(4):363-368.
Duhan JS, Lakshinarayana K. Allelopathic effect of Acacia nilotica on cereal and legume crops grown in fields. Allelopathy Journal. 1995;2(1):93-98.
Wang WX, Vinocur B, Shoseyov O, Altman A. Role of plant heat shock proteins and molecular chaperones in the abiotic stress response. Trends Plant Science. 2004; 9(5): z244-252.
Khurana E, Singh JS. Ecology of seed and seedling growth for conservation and restoration of tropical dry forest: a review. Environmental conservation. 2001; 28(1):39-52.
Khurana E, Singh JS. Germination and seedling growth of five tree species from tropical dry forest in relation to water stress: impact of seed size. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 2004;20(4):385-396.
Barbour GM, Busk JK, Pitts WD. Terrestrial plant ecology. New York: The Benyamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc; 1987.
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