Annual Research & Review in Biology

Genetically modified (GM) crops present India with a transformative opportunity to address pressing challenges in food security, climate adaptation, and agricultural sustainability. This review critically examines the scientific advances, historical development, regulatory frameworks, socio-economic impacts, and ethical debates shaping the adoption of GM crops in India. While Bt cotton has emerged as the country’s primary GM success, covering over 90% of national cotton acreage and significantly improving yields and farmer incomes, efforts to commercialise other GM crops such as Bt brinjal and GM mustard have encountered persistent regulatory delays, political opposition, and public scepticism. The paper explores the evolving roles of the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) and the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), highlighting how recent reforms especially the 2022 guidelines for genome-edited crops reflect a policy shift toward innovation-friendly regulation. In addition, it addresses critical socio-economic and ethical considerations, including smallholder access to technology, seed sovereignty, intellectual property rights, environmental risks, and consumer choice. Looking ahead, advances in genome editing, synthetic biology, and multi-omics approaches hold immense promise for developing stress-tolerant, nutrient-enriched, and regionally adapted crops tailored to India’s diverse agro-ecological zones. This review synthesises current scientific, regulatory, and socio-political evidence to provide researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders with actionable insights for creating a transparent, inclusive, and science-based roadmap for the responsible deployment of GM technologies in India’s agricultural future.